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The Lindy

(Margaret has made the thesis available to the network on the condition that people who read the thesis either send (ecb@world.std.com) or her their postal address. Whatever postal addresses that get sent to me, I will forward to her (she's not on the net). She will put you on her mailing list, but all that would mean is getting an occassional flyer from her. I don't think this is a big deal since it does save people the $15.00US + $4.50p/h cost of a paper copy of the thesis. If you've already "fetched" parts of the thesis, I would appreciate it you sent either me or her your address. She'd like to make connections with people all over (not just in the US, she was in Norway a few weeks ago and will be in Tokyo, Japan in mid May). Sorry if people object to this, but it's hard to find good dance material that's also in the public domain.)

The thesis goes along with 4 videos that Margaret produced; however, the thesis does not require any of the videos to be understood and each video can stand by itself. The videos are $59.99US+$4.50p/h each and have Margaret interviewing, demonstrating steps and dancing with one partner per tape:

• Frankie Manning, Chief Choreographer of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers in the late 1930s & 1940s; winner Tony Award, for Black & Blue (2 hours)
• George Lloyd, savoy dancer of the late 1940s & 1950s. Margaret's champion partner in the 1983 Harvest Moon Ball (2 hours 20 minutes)
• Charlie Mead Jamacian born, jazz and tap dancer in Buddy Bradley shows in Europe in the 1950s (2 hours)
• Tom Lewis, Margaret's former student, is one of the best Lindy dancers in New York City (2 hours)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Proposal
  • Thesis Statement
  • Purpose
  • Research Methods
  • Justification
  • Conclusion
• Introduction
• Chapter I: Lindy
  • Characteristics as a Dance
    • General Forms
    • Technical Elements
  • Origins and Evolution
    • Lindy, Jitterbug, and Swing: What the Lindy Developed From and Into
  • Social History: Black Culture
    • The Lindy: African/American Cultural Phenomenon
  • Additional Notes and Conclusions
• Chapter II: Artistic Aims
  • Conclusion and Dedication
• Chapter III: Technical Essay.
• References
• Bibliography

Proposal

Thesis Statement

Dancers of today and tomorrow need to view great dancers for inspiration and to capture any steps or styling they might choose to learn. Viewing certain dancers that I know now is important to the authenticity and development of the Lindy that is currently being passed on. There is not much visually-recorded material of Lindy available for future generations to view. Only a handful of New York Lindy enthusiasts get the opportunity to view or dance with these great dancers, and an occasional viewing or dance doesn't afford one the necessary time for learning.

I want to present, on videotape, these dancers who have achieved excellence in Lindy dancing, to document the dance and the personal style and grace only they can offer. I will discuss the dance's basic form and its differences as exhibited by the various dancers' interpretations. I will discuss their personal backgrounds and influences and their attitudes toward dancing.

Purpose

In terms of contribution to society in general and those who are interested in dance, this project will provide an historical documentation of the Lindy which can be a resource for Lindy dancing done in 1988. It can be used as an inspiration to other dancers, as well as a teaching tool.

Research Methods

By choosing dance partners who span the years from the Lindy's origin to the present, and by having available to me dancers who are considered the best by many observers, I can provide a visual history and learning manual that far exceeds in scope and detail any material that is available at present. There is a need to capture the dancers' styles while they are still alive and interested in dancing. A slight problem might be that since some of these dancers are in their sixties, their styles today may be different from the earlier years, when they competed and performed. Their dancing is now so beautiful that is hard for me to be too concerned about the changes they underwent; it seem that any change must have been for the better! For historical accuracy's sake, I will discuss with them how their dancing has changed. The video can only reveal dancing in 1988, but will present a sense of history which will be evident in obvious differences in the dancing of those of different ages. Each dancer dances a different dance, yet it is all Lindy, and all of the highest quality. This is a point I want to make by doing this project, that dancing, especially Lindy, encourages personal expression and creativity. There are few rules and I'd like to explore what those rules are and look at the variety of forms that have been built upon them.

The videotape will also be a learning tool that will influence all who see it now and in the future. The way most ballroom studios teach Lindy produces sterile dancers who concentrate on the steps and fail to see the limitless possibilities for creativity in the dance. Most of the teachers do not provide a suitable example of Lindy dancing. Their teaching methods leave out the essential ingredient of improvisation. Teaching videos that I have seen duplicate this bland approach. I will attempt to provide an example for spiritual inspiration as well as to give dancers an opportunity to study the moves and stylization's that appeal to them, which they can translate into their own bodies. I will also discuss and demonstrate basic steps and elements which they can experiment with and use as tools for creating their own dance.

Conclusion

Introduction

The purpose of this thesis is to show, on tape, the best swing dancers in New York in 1988, dancing and discussing the Lindy. This will reveal something about the nature of the dance; the Lindy is a dance with as many possibilities as there are dancers who dance it. The Lindy is a social dance, a ballroom dance, but primarily a jazz dance. Because rhythm is its most essential characteristic, Lindy is called a rhythm dance. It has two basic rhythm patterns, a few basic moves, and all else is improvisation structured upon this. It has to be danced with a partner but offers a lot of room for individual expression within the partnership. Partnering, timing, lightness, flexibility, jazz feeling, and musicality are all integral parts of good Lindy dancing.

The thesis includes, aside from the videotape section, a four-part written section: thesis proposal, research chapter, artistic aims chapter, and technical essay chapter.

In the research section, I will first attempt to define the Lindy through a discussion of its characteristics as a dance. I will discuss the more general forms the Lindy is included in, "social dance," "ballroom dance," and "jazz dance." I will then discuss the technical elements which distinguish the Lindy from other dances and the characteristics that distinguish good Lindy dancing from bad. I will then describe the technical origins and evolution of the Lindy through a discussion of the dances that led up to the Lindy Hop and descended from it; and through a discussion of the terms "Lindbergh Hop," "swing," and "Jitterbug."

I will reiterate throughout my belief that the best dancing comes from the "street" or social dancers, not from dancers trained in schools for ballroom competitions. I don't feel most dance schools understand the feeling of the Lindy there are, of course, exceptions, such as John Lucchese and Teddy Kern, who are independent teachers). The Lindy originated in black dance halls and the more authentic style uses African rooted movements, connection with the earth, vertical bounce, side hip movements, and a relaxed, not rigidly-held torso. A sense of abandon and joy comes from immersing oneself in the music and its rhythm. Students should be taught authentic movement and music and then be encouraged to create their own patterns within the feeling and rhythmic structure of the dance and the music.

I will then discuss in further detail the history and social scene surrounding the Lindy and the dances immediately preceding it. I will show how the black influence on American social dance has been great, but not readily accepted by white society a whole. Each dance follows a pattern: it is introduced by black dancers, criticized and banned as shocking and immodest, then forced into acceptance by sheer popularity, public demand, possibly years later, n a watered down or modified version, one which the general public can easily learn and perform. It is then part of American culture. Jazz music and dancing began being played by segregated bands and danced in segregated dance halls, but ended up being integrated. This latter idea is still not accepted or commonly seen in some areas. The American melting pot takes years to bring two cultures together to create a third, and years more to participate together within it.

In the videotape section, I will dance the Lindy with four dance partners, the best in the world at this time (1988). They are all of different ages (one in his seventies, one in his sixties, one in his fifties, and one in his thirties), three of them are black, one is white. I will show that great dancers allow their own style to develop; even though they are dancing the same dance, keeping to the same basics, they look different.

In the artistic aims section, I will analyze my four partners' stylistic differences in relation to their different backgrounds, philosophies, and personalities.

Finally, I will discuss how I technically went about arranging the specific details of the video shoot.

The entire work is the first attempt I know of to present these dancers, or any swing dancers, with an accompanying discussion of the historical background of the dance and the dancers, plus a discussion of the technical elements of style and elements basic to the dance. It is meant to be informative, educational, entertaining, and inspiring.

included in, "social dance," "ballroom dance," and "jazz dance." I will then discuss the technical elements which distinguish the Lindy from other dances and the characteristics that distinguish good Lindy dancing from bad. I will then describe the technical origins and evolution of the Lindy through a discussion of the dances that led up to the Lindy Hop and descended from it; and through a discussion of the terms "Lindbergh Hop," "swing," and "Jitterbug."

I will reiterate throughout my belief that the best dancing comes from the "street" or social dancers, not from dancers trained in schools for ballroom competitions. I don't feel most dance schools understand the feeling of the Lindy (there are, of course, exceptions, such as John Lucchese and Teddy Kern, who are independent teachers). The Lindy originated in black dance halls and the more authentic style uses African rooted movements, connection with the earth, vertical bounce, side hip movements, and a relaxed, not rigidly-held torso. A sense of abandon and joy comes from immersing oneself in the music and its rhythm. Students should be taught authentic movement and music and then be encouraged to create their own patterns within the feeling and rhythmic structure of the dance and the music.

I will then discuss in further detail the history and social scene surrounding the Lindy and the dances immediately preceding it.

I will show how the black influence on American social dance has been great, but not readily accepted by white society as a whole. Each dance follows a pattern: it is introduced by black dancers, criticized and banned as shocking and immodest, then forced into acceptance by sheer popularity, public demand, possibly years later, in a watered down or modified version, one which the general public can easily learn and perform. It is then part of American culture. Jazz music and dancing began being played by segregated bands and danced in segregated dance halls, but ended up being integrated. This latter idea is still not accepted or commonly seen in some areas. The American melting pot takes years to bring two cultures together to create a third, and years more to participate together within it.

In the videotape section, I will dance the Lindy with four dance partners, the best in the world at this time (1988). They are all of different ages (one in his seventies, one in his sixties, one in his fifties, and one in his thirties), three of them are black, one is white. I will show that great dancers allow their own styles to develop; even though they are dancing the same dance, keeping to the same basics, they look different.

In the artistic aims section, I will analyze my four partners' stylistic difference in relation to their different backgrounds, philosophies, and personalities. Finally, I will discuss how I technically went about arranging the specific details of the video shoot.

The entire work is the first attempt I know of to present these dancers, or any swing dancers, with an accompanying discussion of the historical background of the dance and the dancers, plus a discussion of the technical element of style and elements basic to the dance. It is meant to be informative, educational, entertaining, and inspiring.

Chapter I: Lindy

Characteristics as a Dance

Social dancing is a harmless competitive sport. Break dancing competitions among adolescent street kids are socially preferable to gang wars. Dancing as a fun blend of music and exercise can serve as a physio-psychological release of tension, an outlet or activity that keeps one fit as well as keeps one occupied and out of trouble. It is good exercise and brings balance and centeredness to the whole being. If done well, it may rise to the level of artistry and spiritually uplift the participants and audience.

Social dancing can be done in a group, individually, or in couples. All this being true, the reason the Lindy took so long to be accepted by white upper society is that it was new and different and predominantly black in its origins and influence. Society was not yet ready to praise the black aesthetic and welcome with open arms black people and their talents. The Lindy was often attacked by the older generations as dangerously sexual. One writer defends enthusiastic Lindy dancers (Jitterbugs) against such attack, and praises active social dancing as a healthy activity.

I hear the frightened gasps of well-meaning, old ladies who are shocked by the jitterbugs. But I see no cause for worry there. The jitterbugs seem to me to be the true folk dancers of today. The folk spirit will not be repressed. And this folk spirit seem to me to be exuberantly breaking out in all these _Jitterbugdances. Athletic, spirited, joyous, they show a true and irrepressible folk spirit. And I wouldn't worry about their being sexy. I don't think they are. A good _Jitterbugis so active, so busy, so near the edge of exhaustion, I don't believe he has time to think of sex. It may shock grandmother to see the skirts fly out of place, when his partner slides -under his legs or is - thrown over his head. But that's gymnastics. That isn't sex. I don't guarantee what he's doing when he is not dancing. But while he is dancing, I feel sure he is perfectly safe. If you want to worry about sex, you would better watch that quiet couple pressed close together back in the corner of the dance hall, hardly moving as they sway and bend together. Don't worry about the jitterbugger. He is burning up steam in a very safe and entirely moral way. And once the grotesque posturing and the wiggling hips soften out of it a bit, he may make a real contribution to the history of the dance.(1)

The Lindy is also a ballroom dance. Ballroom dancing is touch partner dancing, originally done socially, requiring leading and following. The earliest couple dances about which much is known are the European folk and peasant dance dating back to 1350.(2) Unfortunately, today's ballroom dance teachers and studios have given, for self-elevating or commercial reasons, ballroom dancing a more rigid structure requiring the learning of rules, positions, and levels of step lists. This creates a social environment of snobbery and competition, the antithesis of the joyful exuberance and relaxed atmosphere that pervade a social setting. Thus I am making a distinction between the social ballroom dancing and the ballroom dancing that has evolved from the teachings of ballroom studios and their professional competitions. They have developed a style of their own which is void of authentic ethnic quality. The Lindy was danced socially at the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem and many other ballrooms around the country long before it was accepted by the ballroom dance associations as a ballroom dance. Its form and character were changed by teachers' associations in order to be acceptable and easily taught.

When the large dance halls closed down after the war, ballroom studios kept teaching the Lindy, without the exciting input from the street dancers at the clubs. Thus the dance that was taught became a watered down remnant, taught with ten or so other dances that students were to learn in eight classes. The use of improvisation and creativity, so important to the dance, almost disappeared, until new swing dance enthusiasts recently banded together and organized new dancing clubs.

The Lindy is a Jazz dance. This is probably one of its most important characteristics. If it does not have that jazz feeling, the dance is not the Lindy. Jazz is an American phenomenon born of two cultures, black (African) and white (European). Jazz is a blend of improvisation and structure. The individual performer expresses his own mood, cool or hot, and improvises. He allows his soul to speak through his body's own individual language. This honest, stylistic expression, involving the music and one' partner, is of utmost importance. Jazz dance calls for artistry which uses technique as a vehicle rather than as an end. The technical judging of ballroom competitions puts ballroom dancing on the level of an Olympic sport, rather than on the level of a social or artistic expression. Technical achievement outweighing creativity promotes cloning and monotony.

Technical Elements

To define Lindy or Swing not only as a Jazz dance, but as having a certain rhythmic feeling, is very important. To dance Lindy well, one must understand the music and the timing of the basic steps, interpret these, and play with them. Ballroom studio Lindy and old Jazz (authentic) Lindy are totally different. One is refined and confined, the other is relaxed, creative, and free. One is totally involved in the music. Good swing music is essential to achieving the feeling of the Lindy. It doesn't have to be super fast to swing. It doesn't have to be wild to be alive. Many confuse wildness with a characteristic of the Lindy. (The two ideas, wildness and aliveness, both seem to be missing from studio Swing.)

Where does the idea of wildness come from?

• Moves were exaggerated for performances and competitions, such as the Harvest Moon Ball, which began in 1935. Acrobatic air step and fat dancing were included to thrill audience, to win prize money, or to get jobs. These professionals or semi-professionals were skilled dancer and wildness was expressed from a base of expertise.
• One would see the film A Day at the Races, or Hellzapoppin', and think Lindy has to include aerials. People got the erroneous idea that Lindy meant jump around and tug away. They might see a back step, misinterpret it a a tug, and in an unskilled, uncoordinated way, imitate it by running, jumping, pulling and pushing at their partner, with no regard for other on the dance floor, thinking they are jitterbugging. This kind of imitation of the Lindy, from past visual recollections of untrained dancers, is common and dangerous. It spread a false concept as well as endangering the participants and onlookers bodies and eyes!).
• The third source of the idea of wildness is intentional misrepresentation for cultural and political reasons, to ban it from "nice" society. It was termed "wild" and a reversion back to primitivism. The Lindy was "condemned" by church groups as leading to the decay of the young. Sociologist Theodore Adorno, a German emigree who had fled Nazi persecution, warned about the "authoritarian impulses" latent in the strong swing beat.(4) In Sweden, preachers preached sermons against the dance, calling their dance halls "dens of iniquity.(5) In the United States, the Lindy was a threat to society because it was mixing all races and different classes at the popular dance halls. The Lindy introduced freedom in the form of generous hip movements and in the form of improvisation, a response to the unfamiliar African polyrhythms and syncopated Jazz feeling in the new swing music. Musicians improvised solos within a jazz structure and dancers created a dance in which they did the same. All this shocked the more traditional ballroom formalists and much of society, who didn't want this foreign influence. They feared it would lead to anarchy and perversion.

The essential characteristic of the Lindy include its basic steps, an 8-count and a 6-count one, plus a swinging feeling which relate to the music's syncopated beat, which accents off-beats instead of only the usual first beats of the phrase. Swinging is not a body upswing as in an arc of a circle, but refers to how the beat is felt and attacked, or dropped and picked up. The beat is felt in an offset 1, a2, the way a swing drummer plays it, rather than in an even 1 and 2, like a polka. The body or drum stick is loose enough to drop into the beat with weight, and picked up exactly afterwards so as to repeat the drop or attack. The drop does not end in a splat or finish, but is picked up so the rhythm is continuous, dependable, and smooth, as easy as a bouncing ball. This can be done at any tempo, which makes it more fun. The variety opens up the possibility for more different moves and moods.

Partnering in the Lindy require improvisation. The man and woman can play within the phrase of the basic step without having to mirror one an other's footwork, a long as they come back on the same part of the phrase together. These improvisation are called syncopations. Thus knowing the basic steps and phrasing, and how to lead and follow, is essential, but still not enough to execute the dance.

Musicality and freedom of the body and feet, control and agility, are also needed so one can solo within the led amount of time. Constant attention to the music and the partner makes it an ali ve and fun dance, an active, involved conversation.

The basic 8-count step for the man is:

 s l o w   I quick I quick I  s l o w   I quick I quick
  1 Q 2 ! 3 1 4 1 5 - 6                  i 7 1 8
   left    I right I left  I   right    i left  I right

diag. fwd circling around slow to        back    front
around a       clockwise a top
circle

  1 a2    3 4             5 a6             7       8
  L-R-L   R L             R-L-R            L      R
                   triple time

where a slow gets two counts and a quick gets one.  The
basic 6-count step is :
 8 1 0 W  1   6 1 0 W I quick I quick
  1 - 2   1    3 - 4 1 5 1 6
  left    I    right I left I right (single time)


  1 a2        3 a4 5 6
 L-R-L        R-L-R back front triple time)

The slow beats, step on count 1, hold on count 2, may be danced by holding on count 1 and stepping on count 2 or may be replaced by three steps in the two counts (triple time) which would allow you the same foot free as if you stepped the one step. Thus the 8-count may be written in two-count units, as odd, even, odd, even; the 6-count as odd, odd, even for each two counts, telling you how many steps you can take in the two beats of music. (See Skippy Blair's book, Disco to Tango and Back, for further elucidation on this two-count unit system, which she calls the Universal Unit System.)

The man rocks backforward on counts /B of the eight, or on counts 5/6 of the six. The woman steps on the right foot when he's on the left. The hold is more relaxed than other ballroom dances, with his right hand on her back, his left hand near waist or hip level, holding her hand as if he were going to kiss it. The position is semi-open, about 90 degrees, between facing one another and standing side-by-side. All the moves stem from the basics, by playing with the variables of: steps and moves per two-count unit, facings relative to the partner, angle of the torso, direction of the movement side, front, bac, diagonal), level (low, high, on the ground, off the ground), direction of the movement along the floor. defining the floor Pattern

(circular, linear, front, back, diagonal, stationary), and repetition of segments. The way each dancer chooses to vary and combine these variables gives him his own personal style. This is the appealing distinction of the Lindy -- each good dancer does it differently without departing from the basic structure of the dance, without destroying the integrity of the dance.

Origins and Evolution

Lindy, Jitterbug, and Swing: What the Lindy Developed From and Into

"Lindy" is synonymous with "Jitterbug" and "Swing" when referring to the Lindy, but _Jitterbugand Swing may refer to different dances as well. While Swing and _Jitterbugare generic terms, the Lindy is a specific dance.

The Lindy includes both 8-count and 6-count step and rhythm patterns. It originated in the 1920's and was called the Hop, and it was danced to the new swing music being developed by the newly formed big bands. It became known as the lindbergh Hop, or Lindy Hop (now just Lindy), after Charles Lindbergh made his trans-Atlantic solo airplane hop in 1927.

Marshall Stearns gives credit to Shorty George Snowden for naming the Lindy. "On June 17, 1928, the Manhattan Casino, a huge ballroom in NYC was jammed. . . . The occasion was a new craze: dance marathons." One of the dancers still on the floor July th, when it was closed by the Board of Health, was George "Shorty" Snowden. During one of the short contests among the surviving couples,

Snowden decided to do breakaway, that is, fling his partner out and improvise a few solo steps of his own. In the midst of the monotony of the marathon, the effect was electric, and even the musicians came to life. Shorty had started something.

At one point Fox Movietone News arrived to cover the marathon and decided to take a close up of Shorty's feet. The general impression that Shorty was out of his mind and his dancing a kind of inspired confusion was gaining currency. "What are you doing with your feet," asked the interviewer, and Shorty, without stopping, replied, "The Lindy." (6)

Dorothea Ohl, on the ballroom page of the 1956 Dance Magazine, explains the birth of the Lindy thusly:

Legend has it that way back in 1927 when Lindbergh made his historic solo flight to Paris, the people of New York's Harlem were just as excited as the rest of the world. Would he make it? When the news that he had arrived was announced at the Savoy Ballroom, Harlem's best known dance spot, pandemonium broke loose. People jumped for joy; strangers pounded one another in glee. One young man, overcome by the thrill, took off over the floor, shouting, "Look! Look! I'm flying just like Lindy!" He seized a partner in passing and away they went. The floor soon filled with dancers following his lead, improvising turns and twists on their own, all chanting, "Lindy! Lindy! Lindy!" And so it was born.

Many sources (Marshall Stearns, Ernie Smith, Brian Gillie, and Richard Powers) claim the Lindy is supposed to be a direct descendant of the Texas Tommy, but no one seems to know exactly what that dance looked like. "Tommy" is slang for prostitute, and the dance appeared in the red light district of San Francisco between 1905 and 1910. It was danced by black couples performing at Lew Purcell's Cabaret, the only black club on the Barbary Coast (the performers were black, the clientele white).(9) Supposedly some black dancer brought it up from the South. It appeared on Broadway in Darktown Follies in 1912 and was a great hit. The basic step, "a kick and a hop about three times on each foot followed by a slide,--l! was different from the Lindy basic.

But both have a breakaway after that, where the partners separated and could do what they wanted to, before returning to one another. Both were thought to be acrobatic and both had couples creating their own steps and groups of couples performing them. Both were originated by black dancers and had black dance teams performing them.

Never having seen the Texas Tommy, I believe the Lindy to be a direct blend of the Two-step and the Charleston. Both have the same 8-count rhythm pattern that the Lindy had, quick-quick, slow; quick-quick, slow. Charleston replaces the quick-quick with a two-count kick. In the 1928 film After Seven,(11) three couples do a closed position Charleston. Shorty George Snowden, one of the creators of the Lindy, is one of the dancers. The dance looks like a blend of Charleston and Lindy, a halfway point between the two in the development of the Lindy. The Lindy uses a rock step (quick-quick or back/front which rocks away from and towards your partner), but sometimes uses a kick instead. Charleston sometimes uses a rock-step replacement for the kick. Charleston moves are used in the Lindy breakaway section. A common thing to do is to break into a side-by-side or back Charleston where you're facing your partner's back which is nested in front of you, do that for a few bars of music, and then swing back into a Lindy.

The Two-step, which now is really the same as the Foxtrot box step (guick-quick slow, quick-quick low), was done at the turn of the century. The Lindy also uses guick-quick slow, quick-quick slow, only circling clockwise and moving the partners back into a rock step on one quick-quick or releasing the partner out and in within the eight counts, as opposed to staying in the closed dance position of the Two-step for the entire eight counts.

The Charleston was introduced with the James P. Johnson song "Charleston," in an all-black Broadway show, Runnina Wild, in 1923. The dance supposedly went back years earlier. There's a questionable story that says slaves were punished for crossing their knees so as soon as their work day was over, they'd cross and uncross them, and that's how the Charleston was born. The Black Bottom (1924) and the Collegiate were later introduced but never achieved the lasting popularity of the Charleston. The Collegiate, also thought to be like the Lindy, was something based on the Charleston, only new and flashier for the college kids.(12) Brian Gillle, dance historian, said the Varsity Drag of 1927 was a combination of the Charleston and the original Foxtrot.(13) It may be the Varsity Drag is the Collegiate.

In the video portion of my thesis, I asked Frank Manning, chief choreographer of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers in the 30's and 40's, what dances the Lindy came from. He said the Collegiate, and proceeded to demonstrate what I would call a closed position Charleston.

It is hard to trace the exact roots or birth of a dance. George Lloyd, Savoy Lindy Hopper with whom I won the 1983 Harvest Moon Ball, said in the video tape that the Lindy came from the Two-step. He then did a Two-step into the Lindy. To me this seems to me the most sensible lineage; just change the direction of the quick-quick from side-together to back-front, and you have the Lindy. (I did not discuss this question with Frank or George prior to the interview, and the two together supported my own independent hypothesis that the Lindy came from the Two-step and the Charleston.) The influence of the music on the Two-step from being more syncopated, then more swinging, could account for the changeover to the new and different feeling of the Lindy.

Musical changes had a lot to do with the creation of new dances. Before 1900, European-based dances were the ones found in the ballrooms, the Waltz being the most popular. At the turn of the century, people were ready for a change, something new and different for the new century. Sometimes, rather than looking for similarities, it makes

more sense to look at differences.(14) People get bored and want a change, a rebellion from the past, or something to call their own. (Kids don't want to do the same dance as their parents.) Ragtime music, a new march-like music with many rhythmic syncopations, became popular. People started dancing the One-step, a new and easy dance that anyone could do. Originally called the Four-step, it was simply walking evenly, one step on every beat of the measure, and was much easier than the Two-step or the Waltz. The songs "Everybody's Doin' It" (1910), "Alexander's Ragtime Band" (1911), as well as the official One-step dance, the Turkey Trot (1911), came out and helped the acceptance and popularization of the new ragtime music and dancing. The dance craze peaked around 1912-1914.

W. C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues" also came out in 1911 and helped popularize the blues. (The Blues feeling and musical structure were major influences in the development of the greatest swing music, such as that of Benny Moten and Count Basie.) Blues dance were close held one-steps. Animal Dances, such as the clutching Grizly Bear, were the rage. They were just one-steps done in silly postures imitating animals. The Foxtrot appeared in 191, a combination of slows and quicks, not like the smooth Foxtrot of today, but a dance with hops, similar to the European-based schottische which was popular at the time. As syncopations, new instrumentation, and improvisation increased the complexity of the music, new dances were called for. The New Orleans- style music changed the solo piano rags to ensemble material which included collective improvisation, all improvising at once. in 1917, the Original New Orleans Jazz Band opened in New York.

There was not much dancing during World War I, but the Roaring 20's made up for it. With the war over, a new sense of freedom, a spirit of letting loose, set the stage for the flamboyant Charleston, which paved the way for the more technically challenging Lindy. Swing music is a development of a form of Jazz created by Louis Armstrong. He took the New Orleans style of group improvisation, where all the players improvised simultaneously, one step further. He brought solo improvisation to an ensemble group. The swing ensemble became tighter and more organized, adding more instruments and calling for arrangements of whole sections rather than single instruments. Soloists were allowed greater individual freedom to stretch out, in turn, one at a time. The dancers, following suit, stretched out in their solos too. All these changes in music created new feelings and sources for expression which came through the bodies of dancers.

Walter Page, bassist of the Count Basie band, played a four-beat walking bass, which added a new dimension to swing music. it traveled more, and added to the excitement of the dancers. Music, previous dances, social climate and reactions, and the desire to try something new, to create something specific to one's own generation, all add up to the magical birth of a new dance.

The Lindy Hop became known as the _Jitterbugin the 1930's. George Wendler, an older man from Detroit, said that as early as 1929, the Lindy reached Detroit known as the Jitterbug.(15) Upon researching it, I found the word "Jitterbug" to be an ambiguous term. I found different opinions among almost everyone I spoke to. According to Frank Werber, the late Al Minns, former member of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, a group which toured the world in the 40's, dancing on stages and in films, said _Jitterbugwas a derogatory term used to describe white dancers who weren't very good.16 Another black Lindy Hopper who used to dance at the Savoy said all Lindy dancers were called jitterbugs. Cynthia Millman conducted a survey for the 198 July-September issue of the NY Swing Dance Society Newsletter Footnote, asking, "What's the difference between Lindy, Swing and Jitterbug?" Frank Manning, also a former member of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, said,

Lindy and swing are the same. _Jitterbugis from the 40's. It's bouncier and faster. It was a white thing as rock'n'roll was a white version of rhythm and blues. It's also more what was done in the 50's than the Lindy which was smoother. The _Jitterbugdoesn't necessarily contain aerials.(17)

Let's Talk Jitterbug, by Ray Walker, president of the US Swing Dance Council (based on the West Coast), says _Jitterbugcarried a stigma that using the term "Swing" avoids.

The term _Jitterbugwas first used in the southern part of the country to describe people who displayed the symptoms of secondary syphilis, uncontrollable jerking and trembling and lack of muscular control. Such observers were apparently unable to perceive the precise and intricate coordination that is essential to our kind of dancing, even when performed by those early swingers. But the name took hold and we were stuck with it. We became Jitterbugs and for the most part, we accepted the title with good grace and tolerant humor. The general public, however, did not view us in turn with equal tolerance. Because our kind of dancing was so completely new to the public view, and so different from anything that had ever been seen on the dance floor before, we were regarded a wild, undisciplined, vulgar, overly obsessed with sex (which is not necessarily bad in my opinion), crude, and totally lacking in manner and moral. That was the general opinion of swing dancers in the late 1930's, but big band music took the nation by storm Jut about that time, and since Jitterbugging was the only kind of dance capable of doing Justice to this new and exciting music, we were less and less mallgned with the passing of years. By the l950's, we were referring to ourselves as swing dancers, and the term _Jitterbugwas heard only occasionally. (19)

Cab Calloway had a song called "The Call of the Jitterbug" that came out in 1933. In the S.O.S. Carefree Times, the newsletter of Shag (South Carolina Lindy derivative) dancers, there is an article called "Hey, Jitterbug" explaining where the term "Jitterbug" came from. In the 30's, Cab Calloway had a hep cat trombone player in his band that nipped the auce too much. Cab would tell him, "Better quit drinking that bug juice, man, or you'll shake and jitter to death." Soon the guys in Cab's band were calling the 'bone player a "Jitterbug".

The phrase stuck and spread around the black musical community to mean one that was super hip (or "hep" in those days).

Later the meaning changed to the name of the dance. It also kept its connotation of hep and cool, however, through the 50's.

To the police of O.D. (Ocean Drive, the nightclub/beach strip in Myrtle Beach), "Jitterbug" once meant all guys with long hair and draped pants . . . prime candidates for the pokey! (20)

Craig Hutchinson of Alexandria, Virginia, sections his article "Swing America" into "Twenties Lindy Hop," "Thirties Jitterbug," "Forties Swing," "Fifties Rock'n'Roll," "Sixtie Solo," and "Seventies Hustle." In "Thirties Jitterbug," he writes,

A bouncy six-beat variant was named _Jitterbugby the band leader Cab Calloway. Music played by Calloway's orchestra in such hot spot as Harlem's Savoy Ballroom was popular among the blacks, and Calloway introduced a tune in 1934 titled "Jitterbug." The _Jitterbugalso contained a style of violent and frenzied athleticism that was hazardous for performers and other dancers, and a Jitterbugger with fast feet was called a flash dancer at the black dance clubs. . . .

. . . kids hooked on _Jitterbugwere called "jive addicts." One faster version, called Shag, had a characteristic kick backwards and forward stomp. Movies which popularized _Jitterbugwere "A Day at the Races," "Swing Sister, Swing," "The Prisoner of Swing," and a cartoon called "I'm Just a Jitterbug." And topping the 30's off was an electrifying exhibition of Jitterbugging couples at the 1939 world's fair. (21)

The word "Jitterbug" came from a radio announcer covering the 1936 or 7 Harvest Moon ball. It was on Movietone news and he said, referring to the Lindy dancers, "They all look like Jitterbugs." And so it caught on after that. (22)

As you see, some have their own special meaning for the term Jitterbug, distinguishing it from the Lindy in general. Some say it's 30's dancing, others 50's, others 40's dancing, some say it's six-beat only, or only fat, some say it's derogatory, others complimentary.) To me, Jitterbug, refers to the Lindy, means the same thing, but I would not use it unless someone did not know the word "Lindy." Because it means so many differing things to different people, it lacks a clear definition, whereas Lindy means one thing.

The same problem arises when the word "Swing" is used. The Lindy was originally danced to swing music; the dancers were called swing dancers, the dance Swing. But now, Swing may refer to a myriad of descendants of the Lindy, such a East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, and Southern Shag.

East Coast Swing is more like a remnant of the Lindy, or what some uninformed westerner thinks people are doing on the East Coast. It contains mainly 6-count patterns. I often call Lindy "East Coast Style" to distinguish it from West Coast Swing, and also to give the East Coast a better name. Lindy, Shag, and West Coast Swing are all smooth dance and include both 6- and 8-count patterns as basics. Shag and West Coast Swing are danced in a linear floor pattern, whereas the Lindy circle with changing orientation. The three vary in when, at which point in the rhythm pattern, the partners move away and towards one another. Shag (9) the official dance of South Carolina. (Congressman John "Bubber" Snow is not only a Shag enthusiast, but a Shag dancer himself.) In Shag the torso is upright and relaxed, and most of the fancy improvisation is done with the lower extremities (knees and ankles). Shag is done to what is called beach music, a slow rhythm and blues.

West Coast Swing is danced to 510w RB, disco, rock, and swing-like music, all with a heavy beat. (There is a group in California, affiliated with the United States Swing Dance Council, that is lobbying to get Swing passed as the National dance!) In West Coast Swing, the torso is held more upright than in the Lindy. The styling is more like modern television jazz as opposed to old black jazz. West coasters claim their style is more sophisticated than its ancestor dance, the Lindy. Many East coasters don't know there is a West Coast style, or don't care. West Coast Swing supposedly developed its slot floor pattern because the dance floors were too crowded and dancing in a slotted arrangement accommodated more couples. There are currently many more small private swing clubs in the West, than in the East. On the East Coat there are New York; Washington, D.C.; and Boston Swing societies; plus many small Shag clubs in the South.

Swing may also refer to Country Western Swing, which has a different basic rhythm pattern. Country Western Swing has an even one-step pattern danced circling in a four-handed open position. It developed in the Southwest in the 30's when bands such as Bob Wills's were developing concurrently with the eastern urban swing bands. The instrumentation differed, mandolins and fiddle were used, but a similar jazz swing feeling was achieved. Country Western Swing dancing includes many more arm moves, an influence of Latin American dances that came up through Mexico and the South- west. In Lindy, you see more of a focus on lower-body movements, hip, knee, and fast foot movements in more complex rhythm patterns. To confuse things even more, Western Swing, which is short for Country Western Swing, is what West Coast Swing used to be called. Also, there is a move in square dancing, called Swing, as in "swing your partner," which is the buzz step, one of the basic variations in Country Western Swing. It is done in closed po6ition, circling around, with the inside foot rooted like it is on a scooter. The beat is even one-step with the downbeat accented.

Thus, ironically, the major difference between the various swing dances is the music it is danced to, when the word "Swing" got its name referring to the swing music it was danced to. Different music gives the various swing dances very different stylings and feelings.

Aside from the regional differences in the various dances which have evolved from the Lindy, there are also regional differences in counts and feeling within the dances currently considered to be the Lindy.

The "Lindy" danced n part of the Northeast (Boston, Washington, D.C.) and in the West (Washington, Colorado) is mainly a 6-count, and thus lacks the flow and smoothness the 8-count gives the dance. (have recently been asked to teach for the DC society, who have expressed an interest in learning the 8-count, so thus may change in the near future.) Without the 8-count, it is not the Lindy and does not have the Lindy feel.

The English International Ballroom dance "Jive" is supposed to be a derivation of the Lindy, the same way their Tango is supposed to resemble a Tango. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Jive is done only to fast music, always looks stiff and overdone, with rocking shoulders and swinging arms, and has absolutely no swing feeling. Jive is danced in competitions with specific technical rules, and danced in costume that would be more appropriate for ice skating or parade floats. The way Europeans do Swing explains where the derogatory term "white dancing" comes from.

French/English Le Roc (already the rock'n'roll in its name, it is different), and Swedish Lindy are also off-shoots of the Lindy. Many Europeans learn their dancing from watching tapes or films and lack tactile learning. I spoke to one of the member of the Swedish Swing Society who said he never does any social dancing, he is too busy for that. He is a serious competition dancer. His dancing lacked the smooth finesse of a social dancer. His lead was heavy and rough, and he had trouble leading those who did not already know his routines. The Swedes are known for their gymnastic ability and their agility in doing aerials, but their swing dancing lacks the easy, soulful approach. Their energy comes from an excited, lifted, ungrounded place; there seems to be no black influence -- not only in their dance environment, but in their street environment. The way people lounge and walk in Europe is different than the way people lounge and walk in the United States. The climate and thus the dancing is physically looser and freer here. The Lindy is not as ways done fast with frantic lunges, twists, and bounces. It can also be danced to slow or moderate tempos.

Social History: Black Culture

The Lindy: African/American Cultural Phenomenon

Throughout the history of American social dance, new dances that have been introduced by the black community have first shocked, and then been accepted by white society -- and then capitalized upon. Unfortunately, sometimes by the time this happens the dance is so changed that only the name reminds us that it is the same dance. From black performance of Cakewalk, to Charleston, to Lindy, to Breaking, this is the case. The structure nay be present, but the feeling is gone. The Harvest Moon Ball sponsors have now replaced the Lindy competition with young white kids from New Jersey competing in breakdance ensembles at Roseland!

Anne Barzel in the Dance Encyclopedia writes, "Modern ballroom dance has its roots in the religious ritual, the funeral, the wooing, initiation and war dances of primitive times.--24 European white formalism was combined with African rhythm. Lynne Eery in Black Dance in the United States from 1916 to 1970 writes,

The heart and soul of Africa i, in effect, a gigantic drum, and the rhythms of it dance are basic to social cohesion, ritual observance, the maintenance of tradition, preparation for war, auto-hypnosis, the expression of grief and joy, and the satisfaction of play and sexual selection instincts.25

The pattern of diffusion exhibited by this first jazz dance -- black solo or group dance to black ballroom to commercial theater to white ballroom dance -- was followed by most of the popular dances of the early twentieth century.27

She Cakewalk first originated on the plantations with blacks imitating and making fun of the formal manners and formal dance of their white after6.23 They exaggerated their upright body position into a leaning back prance and then added what they wanted in terms of improvisation. "It Cakewalk combined Afro-American rhythms, posture, improvisation and some mildly acrobatic movements with white ocial dignity and some contact between partners."29 In 1903 films, Cakewalk, Cakewalk on the Beach, and Comedy Cakewalk, dancers used rubbery in-and-out knee movements, leaps and jumps, and a great deal of individual improvisation, not the type of movements one would see done in white European-based ballroom dance.3! (These 6ame African-derived movements show up later in social dances and black theater.) Seyreated going back and forth, from imitation, to innovation, to performance by blacks for whites, to dancing by white imitating black performer, by the l900's, Blacks and whites were dancing the ame social dances; this trend began with the Cakewalk, he first social dance fad to cut across racial barriers. The two races remained world apart, however. White fad dances were toned-down, 6implified variations of "the real thing," and they usually filtered down to the white world after they had gained and lost ascendancy in Black circles.31

After the Civil War, there was a low migration of blacks to the North. Most stayed in the South initially a tenant farmers. Their main social center was the church, and even though at that time the church banned dancing, dancing was their main activity for enJoyment and entertainment. Not only did white society fear the influence of black dancing, but Negro civic leaders spoke out against it as well. In the early 1900's, one leader from Alabama said, "In my area many are making the effort to eliminate the dance by the skating rink and such other amusements that will take up their time at times when they usually go to the dance halls."32 Others at the time called dance halls the "curse of the day," "our greatest struggle," and "harmful."33

But these adverse attitude didn't top people from dancing. "Jook houses" and segregated dance hall sprang up all over the South. "Jook is the anglicized pronunciation of 'dzugu,' a word from the Gullah dialect of the African Bambara tribe meaning 'wicked."'34 (The word "jukebox" comes from this.) It was in these jook houses that blacks danced and created steps that, when later brought up North, spread among the whites and influenced later dances such as the Lindy.

The Black Bottom originated in "Black Bottom," the ook section of Nashville, Tennessee.35 The Big apple began in a church converted into a black dance hall in Columbia, South Carolina, and includes many African-based moves which were used later by Lindy performing groups, and even by Arthur Murray in his watered-down version of the dance (the Big Apple).36 When blacks loved North, they brought with them not only the Black Bottom and the Big Apple, but also the Charleston, Ballin' the Jack, the Shimmy, and the Mooche.37 Movements from these dances were influential in the development of the Lindy. They were used in the improvised breakaway section of the Lindy where dancers momentarily did separate moves, or as set routine sections during Lindy performances and contests.

"The combination of World War , with its plentiful jobs in the defense industry, and years of poor crops, and a rise in lynchings in the South, drew thousands of Negroes to the North.--38 During eighteen months, beginning in 1916, 350,000 blacks moved North; Harlem grew from 50,000 blacks in 1914 to 80,000 by 1920, to 200,000 by 1930.

Black music and dances from the South came up with the people. Shis mass of black people and culture had to be integrated into Northern society.

From 1910 to 1920, "animal dances" found their way into white fashionable ballrooms. "Animal fad dances such as the Surkey Trot, the Buzzard Lope, and the Possom Trot originated in plantation dances which themselves reflected retentions from African animal dances."4! Tin Pan Alley capitalized on this new public interest, or dance mania, and made up hundreds of dance songs with instructions on how to do the dance. The animal dances "were simple to a point of awkwardness, and for the first time, they permitted what was denounced as 'lingering close contact.''4l A Paterson, New Jersey, court imposed a fifty-day sentence on a young woman for dancing the Turkey Trot. Fifteen young women were dismissed from a well known magazine after the editor caught them enjoying the abandoned dance at lunchtime. Turkey trotters incurred the condemnation of churches and respectable people, and in 1914 an official disapproval was issued by the Vatican.42

Thus, animal dances, so popular in the dance craze of the new century, met with much opposition. Despite such criticism, these dances remained in vogue for a while. Anna Pavlova was reported in the newspapers as seen Turkey Trotting in a dive in San Francisco, "to learn some native American dances."

Whites "slumming" at black clubs helped spread the popularity of certain dance within white society, then and throughout history. In 1913 Vernon and Irene Castle performed the Turkey Trot in the Broadway show Sunshine Girl. Due to their huge success in this and The Merry Widow in 1907, they decided to open an elite dance studio, Castle House, in 1914. So capitalize on the anti-animal dance uproar, they sided with "proper" society and denounced the animal dances as orgiastic, "ugly, ungraceful, and out of fashion.n44 The elite upper-class society wouldn't want to be involved with such lewd behavior or to mingle with the masses. She Castles offered them a dancing alternative. They could till dance and not be associated with the common, vulgar, fad dances. The grace, specific steps and rules they taught required lots of training and lessons, and the wealthy had the money to pay for them. The Castles printed a book of proper dance etiquette, excluding hopping, shaking of the hips, wriggling of the shoulders, and twisting of the body.

The Castles were highly instrumental in popularizing social dancing. They were a bit ahead of their time in that they worked with a black band leader, James Reese Europe, and his black band. The Castles had spent time in Paris, where black musicians and artists were more venerated and fashionable than in America. Vernon Castle, an amateur jazz drummer himself, appreciated African rhythms and actually enjoyed doing the animal dances, which he would pick up from watching black dancers.46

In the teens and twenties, black performers in vaudville, nightclubs and Broadway shows (sill segregated), would combine steps long known at the ook houses and on the plantations, and with the help of new song, create new dances for the white public to learn.47 A song was written and the lyrics would be dance instructions, or the name of a new song would also be the name of a new dance presented in a show, which had specific steps. Everyone would want to see the new dance and learn to do it, thus helping to popularize the song and the show.

In 1923, the Charleston was popularized in this manner, though the black Broadway musical Running Wild, accompanied by James P. Johnson's hit song, "Charleston," written for the show. The Charleston's popularity was soon superseded by that of the Black Bottom48 (although the Charleston's simplicity and unique character made it lastingly more popular throughout the years). The Black Bottom hit Broadway in Georae White's Scandals of 1926, to a DeSilva, Brown and Henderson song. The original "Black Bottom" song was published by Perry Bradford as a dance instruction song in 1919. The dance was "as old as the hills" but didn't gain popularity until the 1926 show with the new Black Bottom song with its Charleston rhythm.49 The songs since "Charleston" were moving away from explicit directions in their lyrics, as evidenced by the Varity Drag, Truckin', and the Lindy, which were the next big dances to appear after the Black Bottom.

The Lindy first appeared around 1927. The growth in popularity of the large public dance hall and wing music were two developments that allowed for its creation. People were going out, and both space to dance and large orchestras were affordable. It was inexpensive to go out and hear a great band. Touch dancing was done by most people then. With the excitement of the new swing music, the larger orchestras, and the energy of all the musicians and dancer came the development of a new dance. The Lindy used a closed dance position as well a a breakaway position for soloing, as the music used ensemble arrangement as a base from which the musicians would break away and solo.

Of the ballrooms in New York, the Savoy, panning an entire city block on 141st Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem, was the biggest, and the most important to the development of the Lindy. It was there that the Lindy was supposedly created, and definitely where it was expanded and popularized.

As stated previously, social dance is a vehicle for social cohcion, expression of grief and joy, courtship, initiation, and satisfaction through play. The social climate in Harlem was changing as blacks moved in, from the 2018 to the 0's. The neighborhood, being in transition, needed a new center of quilibrium for blacks, a replacement for the old world'6 church to provide structure, a positive influence, and a vehicle for advancement, within and without the community.5! Social dancing and dance halls like the Savoy ended up providing the center. Street gangs were prevalent, serving the need for fellowship, protection in the streets, and providing structure in a crumbling and alienating area. Banding together gave the individual more power in the outside world as well as a position and task within the group. Herbert White, "Whitey," proved that one could get ahead with such power by organizing and imposing a tight control on his group. Whitey began a gang called the Jolly Fellows in 1923. They had a clubhouse with their own pool table, a rather rough initiation for new members, "hanging an uppercut on the aw" of an astonished proprietor "and stand there without running,nSl and a membership that grew from 100 to over 600 in the 1930's.52 The Jolly Fellows became "the" club for the great dancers of the Savoy.

Whitey became the bouncer and his club ruled the Savoy. It was a real status symbol to be a member of his gang. It meant respect, and survival in an arca where one could get beat up frequently on the streets. "Whitey demanded unquestioning obedience from the Jolly Fellows, and in return, gave them protection and a place in the 8un.n53 Slmes were tense in the 30's and a premium was placed upon force and recklessness. Harlem had become a fiercely competitive jungle, and the Savoy Ballroom syphoned off much of the nervous energy this constant pressure generated among the lucky few who became deeply interested in dancing. In turn, this emotional climate was reflected in the tireless vigor and daring invention of the Lindy, or Jitterbug.54

Whitey's war became a dance war, which he won; his group, Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, captured all the prizes for dancing around New York, and was contracted for world-wide tours and Hollywood films. His dancers, even if under his iron-clad rule and underpaid, moved from a possible position of being "nobodies" in a poor environment, to stardom in films and world touring shows. It was the black dancers from this environment, from Whitey's group, who helped popularize the Lindy around the world in the late 30's and 40's. It was at the Savoy that this group all danced and practiced. The Savoy, owned by Charles Buchanan, became a social center for blacks as well as a showcase for their dancing. It was open seven days a week, with regularly scheduled events. Monday was ladies night; Thursday was Kitchen Mechanics night (when maids and cooks had the night off);

Tuesdays were reserved for the 400 Club (only the best dancers were its members); on Saturdays, any white onlookers came and there were big dance contest;* Sundays, everyone dressed in their Sunday best and many celebrities were there. Mondays and tuesdays attracted the regulars only; admission was only thirty cents before six, sixty cents from six to eight, and eighty-five cents after eight. Dancing became a way of life for many since it was cheap entertainment, plus a way to make money for the good dancers. Contests had cash prizes; couples would meet there and practice for contests there and elsewhere (all the ballrooms had contests), or they would practice for performing jobs at nightclubs and theaters. White patrons would see dancers and employ them for lessons or tip them there. Celebrities would attend, providing excitement, class, and * According to Marshall Sterns, Jazz Dance, dance contest, which awarded five and ten dollar prizes, took place on Sundays; Sterns quotes "Shorty" Snowden as saying Sundays were a very big night at the Savoy to pick up cash from tips and contests (p. 322). According to Frank Manning, contests at the Savoy were on Saturdays, the big nights being Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays.

possible commercial contact.

There was a special area reserved for the 400 Club called the "Cat' Corner." A in African tribal dances, all would form a circle around the couple who danced in the center, one at a time. The winner of the last contest, "the King," would start it out; no one was allowed to dance before him. Among the best dancers, there was an unwritten law that forbade them to copy each other's steps.55 The aura around this area was exhilarating and competitive. Individual creativity and innovation were valued most. The aspect of performing free for an audience at a dance hall, yet dancing full out in almost religious ecstasy to the rhythm of the music, i similar to African tribal rituals, where musicians and dancers conversed and reached new heights through this competitive conversation, aided by the excited involvement of all the spectators (who could partake as well). It was a new approach in America that blurred the distinctions between amateur and professional and created a group spirit.56 People could lose themselves in the exuberance of the music and the group. This enhanced their freedom for creativity and improvisation. The music at the Savoy was electrifying. It was played by the very best big bands in all history. Two band played there every night. The Lindy developed as a response to the polyrhythms and innovations of the music. Great black jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong, who furthered the importance of solo improvisation, Joe Jones, who introduced the many different ounds and texture that could be produced by the drums, and Walter Page, who accentuated the /4 feeling of the walking bas as opposed to the 2/4 feeling of ragtime and New Orleans jazz -- and arranger such a Fletcher Henderson and Duke Ellington, who expanded thee musical concepts to include whole sections of an orchestra -- helped develop swing music, and thus the dancing done to it. The rhythms called for a more syncopated basic dance step, and the allowance of time for musical improvisation within the musical structure inspired the dancer to "go out" and improvise within the dance structure.

Improvisation was not new to black dancers. Being descendants of members of African tribes, of slaves who buc danced on their porches, and of those who created new steps to win a Cakewalk contest, it seems natural that black dancer would improvise doing the Lindy. But it was new to white ballroom dancers, who were used to dancing steps in an upright, rigidly controlled fashion. At the Savoy, one saw a loosening of barriers, a blending of black and white distinctions. Black were dancing a ballroom pattern and whites were improvising within it, copying one another and trading off ideas. One would ee black and white musicians playing in the same orchestra. (Swing band were the first to have this integration, Benny Goodman' the very first.

The One-step was danced to the even beat of ragtime, marchlike in its quality, at the turn of the century. Then song instruction dances and animal dances invaded white ballrooms. Ragtime music became more syncopated, there were songs that were too low to do a One-tep to. The Foxtrot, with a combination of lows and quicks, was invented. Some say it wa6 Harry Fox in his vaudeville how, others say it was Vernon Castle, upon hearing the music of James Reese Europe, who invented it. In any event, it was more like the Two-step. it was a closed-position dance, with et steps. Swing dancing was a big change because of the breakaway position, the excitement of the faster music, and the more flashy body movements, complex rhythmic improvisations, and foot yncopations. It was difficult for the established ballroom community to accept.

Underlying this was the racial problem of the mixed dance halls. Bob Creae, a co-founder of the New York Swing Dance Society and dance archivist, addrese the social and racial is6ues surrounding the Lindy in his article, "Swing Story," published in the Atlantic.57 Black danced in the same clubs as whites. Whites admired black dancers, some as role models, and some black admired some whites. Black and white musicians played in the same bands. The criteria for prestige and respect were based on dance ability and musical talent, rather than on income, social tatu, or color. Established institutions denounced the dance to the questioning public in hopes of tifling this new movement and dance community with it threatening effect.

The Lindy was a dangerous dance in the America of the thirties, and was all the more disturbing because it mixed races as well as classes. Whites and Blacks mingled in dance halls and nightclubs called "black and tan" clubs, where the Lindy reigned. Guardians of public morality, such as Dr. John J. allio of the Philadelphia College of Oteopathy, branded the Lindy as a throwback to "the war and religious dances of primitive tribes." Anxious parents wrote to publications such a Hvaea, a magazine of the American Medical Association, to ask whether Lindy Hopping led to poor posture, delinguency, or sexual perversion; HYaea replied that the dance indicated that some members of the younger generation were disintegrating under the stress of "unemployment, financial stringency, political confusion, and personal bewilderment.-'58

Ballroom dance teachers were threatened not only because of their position in society as previously having defined elegance and poise in another manner, but because they themselves a dancers weren't able to capture the essence of the dance, nor teach the improvisation that was part of it. They were serving a wealthier or more conservative clientele a menu of poie, good manners, and etiquette, a necessity for all prominent members of society. When churches and magazines were still denouncing the dance as evil and destructive, they feared there would be no market for it in the elite circle. To change clientele to people who went out to clubs already and possibly already knew the dance, was unrealistic. Also, the teachers who had been trained in the Castles' image, by their book, which restricted certain Lindy of body movement (hip and torso), probably would not be familiar enough with the dance, or agile enough to perform its movements in the street style and spirit. Even if they were able to let lose and improvise themselves, if a student came to learn steps, the teacher had to have steps to teach him, or a way of teaching improvisation. This may not be in demand by the student. Also, once a student could improvise creatively as an %nd, a teacher might fear he would have nothing left to teach.

In 1939, Irene Castle said, "'Jitterbug dancing is neither graceful nor beautiful. One should float to the music.' By "Jitterbug" does she mean bad Lindy or all Lindy dancing? The Dancing Teachers Association warned that Lindy dancing was 'a form of hysteria that will prove harmful to the poise of the present generation."'S9 This was after Benny Goodman played at the Paramount Theater in January 1937 to a sold-out house that was dancing in the ailes! This was also during the time when stars such as Marlene Dietrich, Greta Garbo, and Lana Turner (who dubbed the Savoy Ballroom "The Home of Happy Feet") were frequent patrons of the Savoy.60 This was after the first Harvest Moon Ball of 1936, promoted by the Daily News, had to be postponed and relocated from Central Park to Madison Square Garden because the park was so crowded with would-be spectators that the contestants couldn't get through to the stage, or even near it!61 This was the year that Whitey's Lindy Hoppers performed in the Marx Brothers' film A Day at the Races. (Aerial Lindy had developed by then, beginning around 1936, as an organic outgrowth of the mufiic, the rhythm, and the desire to do fiomething more fipectacular than the next person in competitions and performances. Socially, Floor Lindy was still being done and was actually preferred by many.)

Finally, in the fall of 1943, the New York Chapter of Teachers of Dancing, Inc., became the first association of instructors to face up to reality and recognize the "Lindy- Jitterbug" as an official American dance.62 They began to teach it, taming it down, simplifying it, and stripping it of its energy, making it accessible and acceptable to their students .

The Lindy remained popular through the 1940's, but due to recording bans and a twenty percent entertainment tax passed to support the war effort, many Harlem nightclubs were forced to close.63 Harlem's leaders, including Adam Clayton Powell, claimed that La Guardia, the Mayor of New York, clofied the Savoy to stop blacks from dancing with white women.64 The Lindy, with its resemblance to the old African challenge dances in the solo improvisations of the breakaway, . . . the huffling steps, hip movements, and the shimmy,-'65 with its use of Charleston and Black Bottom steps, finally had been accepted by the white public but died out shortly after due to economic or political restrictions. Maybe it really hadn't been accepted. Maybe it was swallowed up in an attempt to have it transformed and resegregated. Although it was assimilated into American culture, at least in some areas, it is danced somewhat like it was originally danced. To those early dancer, the Lindy was not merely one of many dances, but a way of life. At the weekly Sunday New York Swing Dance Society big band dances at the Cat Club, at the Swing Now Trio's Wednesday engagements at the North River Bar, and at Al Cobbs's Monday night gigs at Northern Lights, you will find black and white old-timers and newcomers, all dancing together, re-creating the Savoy-style Lindy and spirit.

Additional Notes and Conclusions

I heard various stories about who created the Lindy. Twist Mouth George at the Savoy evidently was the first to twist or swivel his partner at arm's length after he swung her out. I heard some misinformed Californian say that Dean Collins invented the Lindy (he was the man responsible for bringing the Lindy to, or popularizing it in California). Then I heard someone else say that it came from Southern Cajun dancing. There are about as many stories about where it came from as there are forms of th dance existing today. People like to claim it came from their area or from someone they knew. I believe it actually probably did come from their area or someone they knew! I believe the Lindy began in clubs like the Savoy, around the country, concurrently springing up as a response to swing music. The bands traveled, people traveled, and Southerners influenced Northerners, Easterners influenced Westerners.

There are regional differences in the Lindy and its derivatives, and differences in the use of the same terminology which confuse dancers and make teaching and writing dance history difficult. Often the same word, such as "Shag," has three different meanings. (South Carolina's Lindy derivative, the old-time 1930's dance, and a new California dance are all called the Shag. All three are totally different dances.)

The Lindy, as a complete dance, contains two rhythm patterns; the dancer alternates between 6-count and 8-count rhythms. So do (S.C.) Shag and West Coast Swing, both descendants of the early Lindy. Any Lindy with less than these two is incomplete. The Lindy i a smooth dance. So is the Shag (as evidenced by the best Shaggers I saw in Myrtle Beach, Harry Driver and JoJo Putnam) and West Coast Swing (as seen in the great dancing of Jimmy Bontemple of Ontarlo, California, and Phil Trau of San Francisco). When one is cxperienced and fine-tuned enough, one can play with the step, the music, and one's partner, and through improvisation and subtle nuances, converse with one's partner and the musicians (and the audience, if one is performing).

The Lindy can travel through space, across the room, whereas the Shag and West Coast Swing usually are danced in one spot. This may be due to the more crowded dance floors in the areas in which those dances are danced.

Swing dancing, including Lindy, Shag, and West Coast Swing, is becoming more popular, although there is a lot more dancing done in the South and in the West than in the East. In general, West Coast Swing dancers like their dance better than their ancestor dance, the Lindy, which they consider old. Easterners tend to prefer the Lindy and don't seem too interested in West Coast Swing. I find this situation unfortunate because I think people are missing out on great things from each.

Washington, D.C. and Boston are following in the footsteps of the New York Swing Dance Society and organizing more activities to preserve the Lindy, to learn it and to dance it. These three group function as ingle city-wide non-profit organization, as opposed to the numerous smaller clubs you find in the West and the South.

What i interesting iQ that although the Lindy is a black-rooted dance, in New York at the New York Swing Dance Society dances, there are many black dancers, but most of them are older, many original Savoy dancers. There are not many young black dancers doing the Lindy. On my travels West and South, saw almost no black dancers at all doing the Shag or West Coast Swing. I would say zero, but I couldn't swear to it.)

There are some on the West Coast, like Erin Stevens of Pasadena, and Jonathan Bixby and Sylvia Sykes of Santa Barbara, who like the Lindy. There are others, like Shirley Fietsam of Anaheim and Nick Lawrence of San Francisco, who are interested in all styles, and some on the East Coast, like myself, Margaret Batiuchok, and some of my students like Susan Hoffman, who like them all too. Jonathan and Sylvia do a style of Lindy that was developed on the West Coast by Dean Collins. Dean Collins, an excellent white New York Lindy Hopper brought the Lindy out West in the 30's, where he taught and choreographed Lindy routines for shows and movies. His style is not a black style, but it is very smooth and circular, using swing outs and switches (a swiveling movement directly descending from Twist Mouth George's partner's move).

You might say it is the white groups around the country that are working to keep swing dancing alive. The New York Swing Dance Society was formed by a group of ten young white swing dance enthusiasts, myself included, who wanted to have a place to dance. We had danced at a club called City Limits, where I met my partner George Lloyd in 1983. When it closed we all would go up to Small's Paradise where Al Cobbs's band used to play, in Harlem. During that time some members of the Swedish Swing Society visited New York and got us thinking about the idea of starting a New York swing society. Soon after we began having meetings and held our first dance at the Cat Club on May 5, 1985. We have been in existence ever since. We have a steady membership of about three hundred. We are dedicated to the preservation of the Lindy and emulate the older black dancers, the best of whom I am privileged enough to have as my partners. We encourage participation of all races, but especially black dancers.

This is not to say that there aren't equal efforts by black individuals around ew York such as Frank Manning, Norma Miller, Al Cobbs, and Mama La Parks. out of respect for their contribution, and especially the good black dancers, of which there are many. (This is not say there are not excellent white dancers whose contributions and dancing deserve respect.)

When I was planning a trip to Greenville, South Carolina, for George and myself, I was cautioned by a Southerner currently living in ew York that George might not be welcomed because he is black. I didn't understand this. She said they had private clubs down there to exclude certain races. The club members were older, as opposed to the younger members of the ew York Swing Dance Society. We ended up not going because of it. Also, when I was in Phoenix, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Myrtle Beach, I didn't see any black dancers. To me this was unusual, since I have many black partners. I can't come to any definite statement about this, except to say either black dancers are not wanted in these places, or they do not want to go to these places, or they do not know about these places. Although racial prejudice may exist I think that if black dancers went to these events, there would be sufficient welcome and support from the other dancers to change the situation. I think the situation has Just never come up that black dancers have gone to these events. Maybe they feel too uncomfortable as the only black person. I showed a tape of George and myself to a dancer teacher in California and she was very surprised that my partner was black. She didn't say why, but she didn't seem impressed with the dancing. Maybe it was that she didn't like the Lindy as well as West Coast Swing, maybe she didn't like our dancing.

I am not one to say black culture is totally responsible for the Lindy, that black dancers are better than white dancers. In some of the research I did, I got the idea that the writers were advocating black supremacy or crediting blacks for everything. There were white dancers at the Savoy, like John Lucchese, and dancers like Dean Collins, who were excellent as well, and who helped popularize the dance. American popular culture, black and white, embraced swing music. One might say it was not until Benny Goodman, a white band leader (who happened to have been the first band leader to cut across racial barriers and hire ia black musician, thus having the first lnterracial band), came along that swing was accepted; It may be true that black bands who were as good as his were not noticed until Benny Goodman's success opened the door, but that doesn't say Benny Goodman wasn't good. It must says that society was still prejudiced at that time, and it probably still is.

Jazz music and swing dancing are fun, soulful expressions that can be shared by black and white, Easterners and Westerners, together. I see nothing wrong with wanting to keep one's own style, or liking it best, as long as one respects the different styles of another good dancer. Personally, I want to learn as many styles and as much as I can that appeals to me, and thus develop my own style in the process. My dream is that I will take from each what it has to offer me, fits me best, so I can assimilate it into my own style. I want to be able to dance well, communicating in an inspiring manner, with any other good dancer from any area or style. Developing a larger vocabulary allows more versatility and expression in interpreting different types of music. It also allows for changes of mood within the same piece.

Dancing is an artistic and physical means of communication. How it feels is most important to the dancers and the partner, and also comes through in how it looks. Joy, grief, anger, and playful wit, as well as visual moving design, can all be expressed and shared through dancing. Each dancer's soul is a valuable and irreplaceable unique entity. It is a gift to one's life experience. It would be a shame to miss out on one because of regional or racial differences. These kinds of limitations create barriers. Opening up and learning from others is not only enriching, it's fun.

Chapter II: Artistic Aims

The artistic aim of my thesis is to show different versions of the Lindy and discuss their similarities and differences in relation to where and why they are danced, and to the backgrounds and personalities of the dancers who dance them. I want to present the Lindy as a dance that lends itself to individual styling and creativity. The great dancers don't try to copy others exactly, but stand out as those who have used the Lindy form as a vehicle for their own personal expression. I want to distinguish these dancers as artists, and thus encourage others to treat their dancing not only as a social form, but as an art form as well.

If is had to give a few words to characterize each of the four dancers is taped, is would say first, Frank Manning is charismatic, intellectual, and full of wit. He is physically strong, solid, and definitive in his movements, almost aggressive. His steps are large and clear. He takes over the space and takes charge of his partner, with a laughing, winning smile.

George Lloyd is graceful and smooth, like butter. He dances on a slide. He moves across the floor as if he were on ice. His steps are small and he is more concerned with dancing with his partner than the space around him. He has a personal, underplayed quality. His feet and legs move quickly and he has a lightness that surpasses gravity. He has a lilt and a light driving bounce that are a product of a perfected musical sense of rhythm and timing.

When Charlie Meade dances, the center of his body moves, and the earth moves. His hips move side to side, his torso relates to the space around him, and his arms reach out to his sides. His steps are large and placed evenly in the music. He puts his whole body and energy into every step.

Tom Lewis dances closed in and intimate, in a huddle with his partner, or in a huddle with himself and the floor, working out new syncopations with his feet. He concentrates on his footwork and solo material while he comfortably leads his partner through interesting huddling, cuddly moves and then into long swing-outs, leading them energetically away from him. He can be slippery smooth, or energetic, thriving on throwing, squatting and kicking in varying complex rhythms.

Frank Manning, now seventy-three, was one of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers from 1936 to 1941. Frank began dancing as a child, and by the time he was sixteen he was winning contests and almost professional. He came in third place in the first Harvest Moon Ball in 1936, and second place in the one the following year. He became Whitey's righthand man and chief choreographer and with Whitey's group toured the world and appeared in the films Hellzapoppin'' and the Marx Brothers' A Day at the Races in the 1940's. During the war he put together shows to entertain the troops. After the war he toured the U.S. with his own group, The Congaroos, with the bands of Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, and Count Basie.

Frank originated many of the aerial steps by taking floor steps one step further. He originated "the tops," freezing in the middle of a number and then continuing on, to the song "Posin'." He also did the first Lindy routine which was danced by more than one couple doing the same steps at the same time. He believes in seeing a step and changing it and taking it one step further. He doesn't believe in a right and a wrong way to do a step. When choreographing, he choreographed for each individual dancer and let each couple do their own special steps instead of forcing everyone to be the same.

Frank Manning has an incredible amount of energy and a great love for dancing. He is threatened by no one. He is open and generous and takes everyone in without criticism.

Frank is a natural performer. When he dances everybody watches. His early performing experience, his active mind, and his years of dancing give him a wealth of material to draw upon. He constantly creates new routines and uses them as little sections in his social dancing. Performing and social dancing are one and the same to him. He'll call out "points" or "tango dip," and he and his partner will go into a 16-count sequence they have memorized. His repertoire is full of such sequences and they are interesting to watch. Steady partners get to know more and more of these routines, which he may call out at any point in the dance that he wishes. It is like writing in phrases instead of words. He uses the basics as linking steps.

Frank moves across the room -- forward, backwards, side by side, circling, circling backwards, hopping, skipping -- with a powerful energy that conquers the whole room. His posture is generally low to the floor, his head bowed and his left leg kicking away so that his whole torso is parallel- to the floor at times. His style is bouncy, in the vertical- plane. (None of the four I'm describing here uses a sidewards rocking of the torso. Most hold their torsos calm, isolating them from their hips and legs. Charlie does a slight torso rock, but not like you see beginners or 50's rock'n'rollers do.) Frank uses a double bounce, a bounce on every beat of the music. He dances with a strong lead; the woman has no option but to follow, or be wrong. He dances to the beat of the music and to the mood of the music. His posture changes with his interpretation of the mood. He dances saying something with his movements, something witty, some dance talk -- a variation on the rhythm, doing a number of swing-outs with different syncopations at the end of each one, or a new posture, or facing or way of coming in. He is innovative and always thinking and playing around.

George Lloyd dances by feeling the music. He doesn't intellectualize or think of steps. He doesn't do routines. He doesn't plan ahead; he stays right with the music and his feelings at the time. His mood doesn't change much except from serious to happy, or from relaxed to energetic. George does not do a large variety of new steps. With George it is not his wit or the amount of moves, but it is the way he moves.

George was not a professional dancer. He was a social dancer. He never rehearsed except to work out some aerials. Dancing with George can be romantic. It is more intimate, meant for just him and his partner, and if anyone else is watching it might give him a little more in6piration to show off. But he doesn't dance with an audience, the way performers include their audience -- he dances with a partner.

George, sixty-six now, was born and grew up in Miami, Florida. He was a natural athlete (track champion) and good in math while in high school (George now competes in tournament golf and bowling). George started dancing when he was seventeen. His mother was a good ballroom dancer. George came up to New York in the 40's and danced at the Savoy Ballroom. During the war, he won two Lindy contest in France. He came back to the New York area and choreographed uso shows. In 1957 and l958 he entered the Harvest Moon Ball with his partner, Barbara Bates (she weighed 105 pounds), and they did 13 air steps in 3 minutes. When they didn't win the second year, George said he'd never enter again. But in 1983, he met me, Margaret Batiuchok, and six months later we entered the Harvest Moon ball and won. We didn't do any aerials. We did strictly floor work.

By this time George had developed his sliding style. He had hurt his back in 1969 and had a disk operation, and in the 1970's he broke his arm. After that he gave up aerial. His sliding style, he claims, lets the floor do the work for him. The glide looks elegant, graceful, and really cool, because it does look like he is not doing any work, and is letting something else -- the floor -- move him around. George has impeccable balance and rhythm. This allows him to keep his balance and not tug or pull on his partner. His timing lets his leads occur at precisely the right moment. These two thing make him an incredibly smooth and wonderful partner to dance with. It also accounts for how he can get by without any practicing or warming up. We had just met and didn't practice at all and won the Lindy competition of the Harvest Moon Ball. (We were the first interracial couple to win, and most likely the first to enter; the next year the Lindy portion was dropped from the Harvest Moon Ball.)

George works from a narrow base and take small steps. His posture is fairly upright with a slight 20-degree torso tilt towards the floor. He stays pretty much in one place, and can dance well in a very small area if need be.

Something else that add to Geo rge' smoothness l the way he uses his feet and knees. His weight is mostly on the ball of his feet and he use his feet, ankle6 and knees rocking back and forth from heel to toe and lifting and dropping the knee 61ightly. This control his weight from falling heavily into a flat foot, and help him achieve a wonderful rhythmic lightness. This may be a Southern influence. When I was in South Carolina the Shag dancers there did a lot of angle and knee rolling and rocking forward and back and sideways, isolating movements in those areas, They too moved very smoothly, conserving their energy George conserves his energy, but when he feels like it he can take off into flight His feet can move like lightning underneath him as he does some fancy syncopation, without it affecting his torso George hold his partner close- and comfortably, and is serious when he dance for fun.

Charlie Meade, now fifty-six, was born in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1932, where he learned to dance a a boy The music at the clubs he went to was mainly calypso and wing In the early 60's, when he was eighteen, he moved to England, where he became a professional jazz, tap, and primitive dancer in the shows of Buddy Bradley All of the other in the show were trained dancers, but Buddy Bradley preferred dancers who were naturally good to those who weren't and had training (or those who were good and were ruined by training, as he accused some of being) Charlie toured Europe with Bradley' shows Later he was hired to dance in the movie Cleopatra, which was filmed in Rome stayed in Italy and worked as a twist dancer performing with a partner in nightclubs all over Italy When he moved to New York in the 1960', he met with his friend, the famous tap dancer Baby Lawrence, in hopes of continuing his dancing. But Baby Lawrence died. Charlie stopped dancing for 20 years . . . until the early 1980's when he went to see Norma Miller's Lindy Hop group perform at the Village Gate. Norma Miller, still an active dancer, was a member of the original Whitey's Lindy Hoppers. Charlie had met Norma when they were both performing in Europe. It was there Norma introduced me to Charlie, saying he was good dancer and that is should dance with him. is was a bit skeptical, but is did anyway. And was is glad. We won the Lindy contest there on our first dance! Six month later we ran into one another again at Small's Paradise in Harlem, and began getting together for weekly rehearsal. For about a year we worked on some jazz, African, and tap routines together.

Charlie incorporates routines from his performance experience into his Lindy dancing. He tends to do things in sets of fours and leads them not by calling out their names, but by ut going into them. They seem to be simple and leadable and within the _Lindy6 basic counts. They lend a nice unison look when done flat on facing one another, or side by side, which breaks up the circular Lindy. Charlie also breaks away, letting go of y hands, and we do separate moves facing one another. We improvise and sometimes use moves from our routines, but never do the whole routine or do them in order. This breakaway section was done in the original Lindy and is what distinguished the Lindy as unusual in its early days. It is not used as much these days.

Charlie uses a lot of torso movement, flat-footed slides, and picking up of the feet in a high-stepping, manner. He often works his feet and ankles in a heel-toe-heel- toe-sidewards movement. These are reminiscent of African movements, many of which he got from his primitive dancing, many of which he had from being Jamaican. Charlie does drops and low lunges to the floor, and then jumps up and away, reaching high above his head. He kicks out diagonally, low and high. He extends his arms out to his side, away from his body. His torso is upright, also at a slight 20-degree tilt towards the floor. He uses his arms for balance. His hips are constantly moving side to side as he steps -- similar to calypso dancing, is imagine. His Lindy doesn't travel, but stays in one place. He uses the lateral space and space above him with his arm, which are held higher than Frank's or George's. He turns his partner a lot and does a lot of diagonal kicks in between the step of the pattern or in place of the steps in the pattern. He doesn't do much fast footwork, but does steady, even syncopations. Charlie's arms and legs reach at diagonals as his body tilts. When Charlie gets excited by the music, he does little sideward jumps, landing one foot and then the other, and pushes harder and let out audible grunts of pleasure. The people watching love to see his total involvement and his use of low and high level. They often applaud.

Tom Lewis is thirty-four and began dancing a little over a year ago. He studied with me for nine months, four hours a week privately, and with hard work became one of the top dancers in the New York Swing Dance Society. He was born in Newark, grew up in Manhattan and New Jersey, attending PS 41, Stuyvesant High School and New York University. It's hard to believe that he hadn't done much dancing of any kind before. He has already performed three times with George and me, as George' "relief pitcher."

Tom has a good sense of timing and a comfortable lead. He danceQ a smooth style; his partner is not pulled at as he steps into or off of a foot. Tom has a style that loo cool and mooth. He hunches his shoulders and looks at his feet, which are doing constant fancy variations and movement. He can only afford to pay his feet so much attention if he leads his partner properly, and he does.

Tom uses a lot of intimate moves of circling his partner in and moving her around his back, from one arm to the other, or bringing her straight into his arms. He does movements closely side by side, using hip bumps as send-outs. His hips move slightly side to side whenever he steps. His weight is a little back towards his heels. He may do close, tiny, subtle moves and suddenly throw has partner out and continue to move at a more energetic pace. He lets the music change his mood. His movements have many moods. He has little performing experience so he tends almost to shut out onlookers so he can concentrate on his moves .

Tom works in constant, fancy, lovely yncopations which he makes up or copies, and practices. He end his partner out so both can improvise for a few bar, loosely. When he wants to, he knows just how to signal her o they can come in on time together again. He ucs tretches and lide, legs moving apart and together, extending himself and trying new things all the time. He pushes out on his feet to the side and into the ground for a side slide. He leans on his partner if she is balanced enough and lets her support him for an off-balance move. Then he may support her. Shi weight give-and-take, transfer of body weight, is a lot of fun.

Tom also follows his partner. This may have to do with his younger age and men not used to leading in everything any more, or from his inexperience. Or it may come from my teaching him and my own desire to move out on my own more and have a responsive man who can follow me sometimes. (George does that a little when is accidentally go into something. But is don't feel as free to go into something intentionally of my own choice with George.) It could be I'm looser with Tom. Whatever it is, this give-and-take makes the conversation a more mutual one and the union in the dance tighter. The expression is more of a mutual effort and one which gives the woman more opportunity to express herself. In old films it is the mn wh is the showboat, the peacock. In South Carolina that is especially true today. West Coast dancers give the woman more to do than we Lindy dancers did (until now). is like dancing with Tom because he lets me go into some of the moves is think would be nice, or just feel like doing. He respond by letting the dance go that way, and then taking it from there.

Conclusion and Dedication

The artistic aim of my piece changed a bit while I was editing the videotape. I had planned to call the tape " Lindy , 1988" and objectively show the different styles of each of the dancers, analyzing steps and body parts moving in relationship to one another and the space, and to the backgrounds of the dancers. What I was filled with upon viewing the final edited tape was not the degree of body angle with the floor, but the magnificence of spirit within each of the dancers. The interviews, the explanation of steps, and the dancing together revealed a more emotionally moving piece than the technical one I expected.

Frank Manning is seventy-three years old. This man has more energy and enjoyment of life than most twenty-year- olds. His personality and sense of humor exude from him as he dances, but also as he talks and laughs and goes through his animated antic. He is a publlc, visible, and generous man, and this comes out in his dancing, through a generous use of space and a generous use of his smile, which beams for miles and miles.

Then there is George Lloyd, a more private man. He goes about his business unnoticed until he is given the spotlight. He may feel unappreciated at times because his manner does not invite attention. His delicate personality has not allowed him to totally forget his experiences of not being welcome because of his color, or not being judged fairly because of his lack of affiliation with a certain group. Flamboyant expression of joy is not his thing. His joy is more subtle and private. To see George smile is a rare and wonderful occurrence. A more serious nature, intent on perfection and subtle detail, George's best performance is given when it is not asked for. To see George's dancing with me, a white girl thirty years younger, achieving a beautiful, delicate communication, brings to me rich and complex feelings. Its beauty exist in spite of worldly pain.

Then there is Charlie Meade, who loves to dance. It doesn't have to be sophisticated or cool movement. He loves to move his body. He grunts out of joy when he dance6. His is not the intellectual approach, but more a feeling one, with the energy of the beat moving through hi whole body and pushing into the floor. Frank dance a a thinking personality, smiling, joking with his moves, moving his body totally into a posture or a movement or a routine. George doesn't create routine, but expresses subtle musical details, allowing the music to lead and inspire him, as he skillfully leads his partner to feel what he feel from the music. There is a togetherness of the two with his elegant and gracefully rhythmic feeling. Charlie's movements are more animalistic and on a more basic inner level. He lets his whole body dance in the space, more free of the struture. He moves like a big African bird, hovering, dipping through the air, or landing sideways onto the ground and up again. A rather reserved person, Charlie's inner self come alive in his dancing. His wide stance and wide arm reach express his joy and his peace with it. It's like dancing gives his inner self a place to be -- to live and love around in. It's like the real Charlie, free and happy, comes alive and inhabits his body.

Tom Lewis said on the tape that he entered the Cat Club Swing Society dance and it was like stepping into a fantasy land. Some was so struck that he immersed himself in lessons and constant listening to swing music. He practiced on his own and with others whenever he could. To dance with someone who was so instantly in love with dancing, whom I taught, and who dances so well, made me proud, respectful, and warm inside. A delicate musicality, such as Benny Goodman achieved on his clarinet, lc what Tom's smooth dancing sometimes achieves. A driving force of chaotic syncopations and fat swing-outs and pull-ins is another expression his dancing may take on. Charming and eloquent, saying or dancing just the right thing at times, make Tom a bright oy. He is not heavy-handed in his lead. He follows his partner's movements and accommodates them. he enjoys freedom in his step and allows his partners the same.

At times immobile, Tom is always fluid and smooth. He gets through his moves, intent on them, without an overall plan. He always feels good to dance with. There exists a comfort zone and then a freestyle section, where we chat with our feet, hips, and syncopated punctuations. Tom i a little shy, a little humorously flirtatious, and mostly into his steps.

With all four of these guys, I feel a comfort, a love, and a personal shared expression. As I watched the tape and put the last song on, "You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me," shivers ran down my spine, thinking of how great each one of them is, and how great dancing is -- to enable me to know them in this way and experience these feelings, and enable us to create and express within Its embracing medium. Dancing, because of all it provides -- expression, union, challenge, love, conflict, passion, resolution, analogy, and more than that, its self, "the dance" -- dance is my love and my life. And each of these four partners and all that they are, brought a new kind of love to me, by sharing their dance with me. I am truly thankful to and appreciative of each of them. I want to dedicate my thesis to them, and change the title from " Lindy , 1988" to "You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me." Thank you, in order of my meeting you, George, Charlie, Frank, and Tom. You certainly did.

Chapter III: Technical Essay

In setting up the performance of great Lindy Hoppers, I first had to decide whom to ask, and then see if they would be willing to perform. I wanted the best dancers in New York and wanted dancers of different styles, ages, and backgrounds. I thought of many of my partners and limited the number to four. I chose the four dancers I dance with the most: Frank Manning, George Lloyd, Charlie Meade, and Tom Lewis. Frank, seventy-three years old, is black, was born in Florida, and grew up in New York George, sixty-six, is black, from Miami Charlie is black, fifty-six, from Jamaica, moved to England when he was eighteen Tom, thirty-four, is white and from the New York area. Frank, and Charlie were professional dancers, George and Tom were not. The most difficult thing about the whole project was dealing with each of their personalities, I wanted them each to feel comfortable. honored, and inspired to dance well. They all felt somewhat honored, relatively comforts ble, at least much more comfortable than I feat, worrying about the camera working, people showing up on time, and getting what I wanted on tape from each of them. My own anxiety plus the time we had to schedule the shooting; worked against inspiration, but all in all, I got what I wanted didn't get the most exciting dance performance each of us ever gave, but I captured four different dancer's styles plus a description of their view of the Lindy and its component parts.

I wanted to have each dancer taped individually so they wouldn't be influenced by each other's answers to my goes lions, or by the movements the other ones did. I also thought it would make each dancer feel more special if he were the only one there, as the center of attention. rather than having to share time with others. It was a better use of their time. I also thought it would be easier for me to focus on each one individually. I feel more comfortable one-on-one and felt better able to set up a rapport with each partner separately. I ended up having; George and Tom together because I thought George might dance better with an audience. Tom admires George and they get along well. In hindsight I should have included a large audience for each shot, to increase the performance level and level of fun. I asked each one individually if they would dance with me for the thesis protect, and they all agreed to. I asked Tom September 17, 1987, Frank September 22, Charlie September 30, and George months before that when I originally had the idea. None was overjoyed. When I reminded George about it he grumbled a little bit, but they all consented. I wanted to get it done as soon as possible after they consented, before anything got in the way or they changed their minds, as George almost did at the last minute, just 'cause he didn't feel like it. It was difficult working on something that was very important to us, and getting others to be involved with the same amount of dedication. None of them would take any money for it, as I wasn't getting any. I offered it, but they said they wanted to do it for me. They are all friends and steady partners of mine. I apple elated not having to pay them, but it put the strain of its being a favor to me upon the whose situation.

I didn't set up a rehearsal but danced with each of them at the Cat Club dances and at other Swing Dance Society functions. I had been rehearsing with Charlie almost every week for about a year, was currently dancing with Frank at weekly practice sessions, had danced with Ton four hours a week for the nine months he studied with me, and I dance with him socially. George would never practice. We won th 1983 Harvest Moon Ball together without one practice. We dance socially though.

Setting up the times to shoot was not too difficult but ended up having certain problems. I decided to rent the studio in which I teach one of my classes because it was in- expensive and everyone knew where it was, all having been there before. I wanted to use the same studio with the same background for each of them, so the only variation that would stand out wooed be each one's individual dancing. I wanted to shoot them all as close together as possible Go my dancing would be as similar to itself as possible. I wanted to be in the same frame of mind, and not have any new change or influence appear in rig dancing in one shoot that didn't appear in the other. I was to be a control factor, they were to be the variables.

The lighting in the studio was a factor to consider for videotaping. I wanted to use natural lighting for monetary reasons, so we needed to shoot in the daytime, and around the same time of day for each one. Also, the only time that they all could make it was weekend mornings around noon. Unfortunately, this is not the most inspired time to social dance, but it was a tine the studio was available for rent- trig and it was a time that none of the guys was working or out socializing.

Donald Young, who had taped my dancing many times before, agreed to do the taping. He was an ex-professional dancer himself who had danced ballet, musical theater, and jazz with the American Dance Machine), and had done pro professional video work in Minnesota some years ago. I own industrial camera, portable GE VCR, and a tripod, which he used to do the taping, The camera was set up {n the same position each time. We found the best angle which provided the most amount of lighting with the least amount of glare from the sun or the mirror. We draped a curtain over the doorway to avoid seeing people who were not involved pass in and out of the picture. Donald taped Frank Manning December 12, and George Lloyd and Tom Lewis on December 20, 1987. Unfortunately, the studio, Studio EGG. (287 Broadway, one block north of Chambers Street), was closed for painting the week I wanted to shoot Charlie Meade. Luckily they painted the studio the same Color! I had to shoot Charlie later, and at a time that Donald was not available. My sister, Susan Rummea, was visiting New York from Montana fur Christmas vacation. She is an excellent stile photographer and was a lighting technician in high school years ago, but had never worked with a video camera before. She agreed to shoot Charlie and me for me. She taped us on January 3rd, 1988.

In the time between asking the dancers and setting up the studio time, I planned the questions I wanted to ask and the dances I wanted to do. I wrote this down and gave each of the dancers a copy of this, along with a brief verbal description of what I wanted to accomplish by the performance, ive., to show how the Lindy lends itself to individual interpretation and styling by great dancers. I gave them this a day or two (or three) before. I wanted them to be pee pared but not too prepared, no their answers could be somewhat spontaneous.

I decided to wear the same costume each time, to provide the same basis of comparison against which one could see the men's styles. I decided to wear a white jumpsuit so it was visible for the camera, and all one color, for an unbroken line. It allowed a view of leg and hip movements that would be hidden by a skirt. I thought street clothes rather than leotards were more appropriate for social dank trig. I purposely didn't tell the men what to wear, to see what each would individually come up with. I thought it might express something more about their personalities and personal approaches.

To be better able to compare the style of each dancer, I decided to have each one dance to the exact same songs. I chose "Shiny Stockings," a medium-slow swing number by Count Katie, Frank Manning's favorite song a version of "One O'clock Jump," a faster swing song that George Lloyd always requests when we do demonstrations "The Peeper," by Hank Crawford, one of Charlie Meade's favorite artists, who does more of a rhythm and blues razz: and you Brought a New Kind of Love to Me," a smooth Benny Goodman number, my favorite, one that Tom Lewis taped for me to use in his lessons at my student. I wanted to see how each dancer interpreted the same music.

To further analyze the differences and similarities among the dancers, I thought it would be helpful to see hen each looked at the dance itself, technically. I asked each one what they thought the basic step was. None of the three older men had ever taken lessons. Frank Manning had done some teaching, Tom Lewis began dancing as my student about a year ago. Each one danced what he considered the basic step. Then I asked each one to show me a "swing-out," a reverse and a tuck-in turn, a kick step, and a jig walk. Sometimes I had to explain the terminology I was using, by showing them which move I meant. I asked each, "How do yea count the rhythm -- or do you count the rhythm?" Then I asked them if they knew or created any routines which they added into their Lindy, and would they show them to me. Then I asked them to demonstrate any Charleston, Big Apple. and Shim Sham moves they knew.

Lastly, but possibly not presented to each lastly, I interviewed them verbally only. without demonstration. Thus I had a pure dance section, an interview-dance-demonstration section of showing and breaking down steps without music, and an interview section. These were the questions I asked in the interview: Where did you begin dancing -- how old were you, who taught you?

1. Tell me a bit about your personal history.
2. How often did you go out -- do you go out now? . Did you practice with a partner?
3. What qualities do you like in a partner?
4. What do you like about the Lindy?
5. What is necessary to dance a good Lindy? What is important?
6. Do you do other dances?
7. Do you know who created the Lindy -- what dances it came from -- how it developed?
8. Who were your favorite dancers? and now? . Did people dance differently in the 20's? 30'g? 40's? now?
9. Do any dancers we know now resemble old styles . Did your style change over the years? How? . Can you compare your style to others? How is it the same? How is it different?
10. Do you have any visual or other images while dancing?
11. How do you create steps?
12. Do you think about dancing, or new or old moves, at other times during the day?

To edit the tape, I had to decide upon an interesting and effective order, I put an eight-minute section of each dancer dancing two minutes of Basie's shiny Stockings" as an introduction or overview, to serve as an appetizer for the rest of the tape. Then I verbally introduced, on tape, each dancer, with a brief description of his background, in the same order they appeared in the introduction and would be seen in the first section, eldest to youngest.

Section I was the dance demonstration. I began with the eldest, Frank Manning, who demonstrated the dance he believed the Lindy evolved from, and also the steps he considered the basic steps in the Lindy. Then I danced the entire "Two O'Clock Jump" by Harry James with Frank. I did this with George, Charlie, and Tom, next.

Section II was the interview section. I spoke with each dancer about his background, where and how he learned to dance, what qualities he liked in a partner, and what he thought was important to good Lindy dancing. I danced to Hank Crawford's "The Peeper" with each one after his interview. I reversed the order, speaking to Tom, the youngest, first, ending with Frank Manning, who had the most history Cally influential background of all fear.

Section TIT was the style and favorite dancers section. I began again with Tom, and asked about how he created steps, who his favorite dancers were Which turned out to include Frank, George, and Charley, and to describe his style. Tom and I then danced the last number to be danced by all four, You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me." I then asked Charlie the same questions this favorites included George and Tom, and I then danced to the same last song with him. Then, as a break from the structure, to emphasize its importance, I chatted with George about his feelings of persection, as an outsider from the group of dancers representing the Savoy at the Harvest Moon Ball, to his being black and not welcomed at certain restaurants and clubs. These all are part of his dance history, and dance history in general, and not a part that is usually included. (I included his favorite dancers and his view of his style in his interview in Section II.) George presented some pretty powerful information and I put this near the end as an emotional climax, followed by us, suddenly a noticeably white-and-black couple, dancing to the sweet, pretty song, "You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me." To end it on a happier "up" note, I ended with joyful Frank Manning, I asked Frank about his favorite dancers and how he created steps (in his answers he mentioned George and Sam) and how he would describe his style. The dancers' mutual admiration society added a nice feeling to the film. I ended with a dance to "You Brought Me a New Kind of Love to Me" with Frank, after which we playfully reintroduced one another and laughed.

References

     1 The Round Dance Book, 1950, cited by Ray Walker,
Let's Talk Jitterbug, Information and Education Release from
the U.S. Swing Dance Council, 6B39 North 14th Street,
Phoenix, Ariz., 1987, p. 1.

     2 Richard M. Stephenson and Joseph Iaccarino, The
Complete Book of Ballroom Dancing (New York:  Doubleday &
Co., 1980), p. 4.

     3 Ray Walker, Let's Talk Jitterbug, Information and
Education Release from the U.S. Swing Dance Council, 6839
North 14th Street, Phoenix, Ariz., 1987, p. 2.

     4 Robert P. Crease, "The Lindy Lives!",  50 Plus, Vol.
28, No. 3 (March 1988), p. 38.

     5 Robert P. Crease, "Swing Story," The Atlantic, Vol.
257, No. 2 (February 1986), p. BO.

     6 Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance-  The Story of
the American Vernacular Dance New York:  Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., 1964, pp. 315-316.

     7 Dorothea Duryea Ohl, Dance Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 11
(November 1956), pp. 90-92.

     8 Stearns, op. clt., p. 323.

     9 Ibid., p. 128.

     10 Ibid., p. 108.

     11 After Seben, Paramount, May 17, 1929.

     12 Richard Powers, personal interview, New Haven,
September 30, 1987.

     13 Brian Gillie, personal interview, Guilford, Conn.,
October 26, 1987.

     14 Powers, op. cit.

     15 Stearns, op. cit., p. 329.

     16 Cynthia Millman, The Roving Reporter Asks:  Jitterbug-
bug, Lindy Hop, Swing:  What's the Difference?", Footnotes,
ed. Gabby Winkel, Vol. 2, No. 3 (July-September 1987), p. 3.

     17 Ibid.
     18 Ibid.
     19 Walker, op. cit.
     20 "Hey Jitterbug!", S.O.S. Carefree Times, Box 8343,
        Richmond, Va. 23226, Mid-Winter 1988, p. 4.

     21 Craig R. Hutchinson, Swing America, 1520 Anderson
        Ct., Alexandria, Va., 22312, 13 August 1986.

     22 Frank Manning, personal interview, New  York,
        January 27, 1988.

     23 Anatole Chuoy and P. W. Manchester, The Dance Encyclopedia-
        (New York:  Simon and Schuster, 1967), p. 503.

     24 Anne Barzel, "History of Social Dancing," in The
        Dance Encyclopedia, comp. Anatole Cluoy and P. W. Manches-
        ter (New York:  Simon and Schuster, 1967), p. B42.

     25 Lynne Emery, Black Dance in the United States from
        1916 to 1970 (New York:  Dance Horizon, 1980), p. vii.

     26 Russella Brandman, "The Evolution of Jazz Dance
        from Folk Origins to Concert Stage" (Ph.D. dissertation,
        Florida State University College of Education, June 1977),
        p. 10.

     27 Ibid., p. 112.
     28 Stearns, op. cit., p. 110.
     29 Brandman, op. cit., p. 110.
     3! Ibid., p. 112.
     31 Brenda Dixon-Stowell, "Black Dance America:  Historical-
        Roots," paper presented at Dance Black America confer-
        conference, Brooklyn Academy of Music and the State University of
        New York, April 21-24, 1983, p. 13.

     32 Emery, op. cit., p. 220.
     33 Ibid.
     34 Ibid.
     35 Ibid., p. 221.
     36 Ibid.
     37 Ibid.
     38 Ibid.
     39 Ibid.
     40 Dixon-Stowell, op. cit., p. 13.
     41 Stearns, op. cit., p. 96.
     42 Sylvia Dannett and Frank Rachel, Down Memory Lane
        (New York:  Greenberg Publishers, 1954), p. 75.

     43 Brandman, op. cit., p. 115.

     44 Vernon and Irene Castle, Modern Dancing (New York:
        Harper and Bros., 1914, p. 177.

     45 Ibid.
     46 Stearns, op. cit., p. 97.
     47 Dixon-Stowell, p. 13.
     48 Stearns, op. cit., p. 110.
     49 Ibid.
     50 Ibid., p. 318.
     51 Ibid.
     52 Ibid.
     53 Ibid.
     54 Ibid., p. 320.
     55 Brandman, op. cit., p. 124.
     56 Stearns, op. cit., p. 329.
     57 Crease, "Swing Story," p. 78.
     58 Ibid.
     59 Ibid.
     60 Norma Miller, "The Home of Happy Feet:  A Salute to the Savoy
        Ballroom," unpublished paper, New York, 1986, p. 2.
     61 Ibid.
     62 Crease, "Swing Story," p. 78.
     63 Ibid.
     64 Ibid.
     65 Emery, op. cit., p. 235.

Bibliography

Barzel, Anne.  "History of Social Dancing."  In The Dance
     Encyclopedia, comp. Anatole Chuoy and P. W. Manchester.
     New York:  Simon and Schuster, 1967.

Brandman, Russella.  "The Evolution of Jazz Dance from
     Folk Origins to Concert Stage."  Ph.D. dissertation,
     Florida State University College of Education, June,
     1977.

Castle, Vernon and Irene.  Modern Dancing.  New York:
     Harper and Bros., 1914.

Chuoy, Anatole, and P. W. Manchester.  The Dance Encyclopedia.
     New York:  Simon and Schuster, 1967.

CreaQe, Robert P.  "The Lindy Lives!"  50 Plus, Vol. 28,
     No. 3 (March 1988).

        .  "Swing Story.ll The Atlantic, Vol. 2S7, No. 2
     (February 1986).

Dannett, Sylvia, and Frank Rachel.  Down Memory Lane.  New
     York:  Greenberg Publisher, 1954.

Dixon-Stowell, Brenda.  "Black Dance America:  Historical
     Roots."  Paper presented at Dance Black America conference,
     Brooklyn Academy of Music and the State University
     of New York, Aprll 21-24, 1983.

mery, Lynne.  Black Dance in the United States from 1916 to
     1970.  New York:  Dance Horizons, 1980.

Enelbrecht, Barbara.  "Swlnging at the Savoy.n Dance
     Research Journal, 152, Congrcss on Research in Dance,
     Sprlng 1983.

Glllle, Brlan.  Personal lntervlew.  Gullford, Conn.,
     October 26, 987.

"Hey Jltterbug!" S.O.S. Carefree Tlmes, Box 8343, Rlchmond,
     Va. 23226, Mid-Wlnter 1988, p. 4.

Hutchinson, Craig R.  Swing America.  1520 Anderson Ct.,
     Alexandra, Va., 22312, 13 Augut 1986.

Bieberson, Richard.  Personal lnterview.  New York, Auu
     1986.

Manning, Frank.  PerRonal intervlew.  New York, January 27,
     1988.

Miller, Norma.  "The Home of Happy Feet:  A Salute to the
     Savoy Ballroom.n Unpublished paper, New York, 1986.

Millman, Cynthia.  "The Rovng Reporter Asks:  Jitterbug,
     Lindy Hop, Swing:  What's the Difference?"  Footnotes,
     ed. Gabby Winkel, Vol. 2, No. 3 (July-September 1987),
     p. 3.

Ohl, Dorothea Duryea.  Dance Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 11
     (November 1956), pp. 90-92.

Schoenberg, oren (formerly with Benny Goodman).  Personal
     interview.  New York, July 1986.

Stearns, Marshall and Jean.  Jazz Dance:  The StorY of the
     American Vernacular Dance.  ew York:  Macmillan
     Publishing Co., Inc., 1964.

Stephenson, Richard M., and Joseph Iaccarino.  The Complete
     Book of Ballroom Dancina.  New York:  Doubleday  Co.,
     1980.

Walker, Ray.  Let's Talk Jitterbug, Information and
     Education Release from the U.S. Swing Dance Council,
     6839 North 14th Street, Phoenix, Ariz., 1987.



                    Additional Sources

Bennett, Richard.  A Picture of the Twenties.  London:
     Vita Boos, 1961.

Blalr, Skippy.  Disco to Tango and Back.  Downey, Callf.:
     Golden State Teachers' Asociation, 1978.

Butler, Albert and Josephine.  EncYcloPedia of Social Dance.
     New York:  Albert Butlcr Ballroom Dance, 1980.

Clarke, John Henrik.  Harlem:  A CommunitY in Transltion.
     New York:  Cltadel Prcs, 196.

Dance, Stanley.  The World of Swing.  New York:  Charles
     Scribner' Sons, 1974.

De Mille, Agnes.  America Dances.  New York:  Macmillan
     Publishing Co., Inc., 1980.

Finkelstein, Sidney.  Jazz:  A PeoPle's Music. New York:
     Citadel Press, 1948.

Fonteyn, Margot.  The Maaic of Dance.  New York:  Alfred A.
     Knopf, 1979.

Frank, A. H.  Social Dance.  London:  Routledge & Regan
     Paul, 1963.

Harris, Jane.  Handbook of Folk. Sauare and Social Dance.
     Mlnnesota, Burges Publishing Co., 1950.

Heaton, Alma.  Techniaues of Teachin Ballroom Dance.
     Provo, Utah:  Brigham Young University Press, 1974.

Holliday, William.  "Shagging."  Myrtle Beach, Spring, 1986.

Hostetler, Lawrence A.  The Art of Social Dancina.  New
     York:   A. S. Barne & Co., 1934.

Humphrey, Doris.  The Art of Making Dances.  New York:
     Grove Press, Inc., 1959.

Levy, Steven.  "Shag Dancing & Sop Popping."  Rolling Stone,
     September 39, 1982.

McDonough, Don.  Dance Fever.  New York:  Random House,
     Inc., 1979.

Nettl, Paul.  The Storv of Dance Music.  New York:  reen
     wood Press, 1947.

Rust, Francis.  Dance in Society.  London:  Routledge &
     egan Paul, 1969.

Williams, Martin.  The Jazz Tradition.  New York:  Oxford
     University Prcss, 1983.



                       Visual Works
A Dav at the Races, with the Marx Brothers.  MGM, 1937.
Eve on Dance.  ARC vldeodance, NYCTV.  New York 1985.
HellzaDoDDin'. Universal, 1941.
The Savo Ballroom of Harlem.  Dlr. Mura Dehn.  New York,
     1950.

Shaa.  Dir. Rick Sebak.  South Carolina Educational 
Television Network, 1985.

The Sirit Moves.  Dir. Mura Dehn.  New York, 1950.
Various films from the collection of Ernie Smlth.
Varous films from the collection of the Schomberg Library,
     and the Performance Library at Llncoln Center.



                        Interviews

Dancers
Tom Lewis
eorge Lloyd
Joseph Maslln, teacher, Colorado
Harold Charles Meade


Musicians and Musicologists
Bryant Dupree, of the Swing Now Trio
Richard Lieberson
ndre Lubart
Bevln Manon, faculty, Berkeley School of Music, Boston

Tiny Moore, formerly with Bob Wllls

And to my other dance partners: John Clifford Wise, Gary Kirmayer, Mlchael Chambers, Roger Weiss, Lrry Michol, Dean Moss, Mark Hollis, and Carl McGowan, all from City imits; Gll Toro, Jerry Goralnick, Frank Werber, Al eagins, Calvln Johnson, Judy Pritchett, Susan Hoffman, Steve Oppenheim, and Blll aasters, from the New York Swing Dance Soclety.

And all my students, and all the members of the New York Swing Dance Soclety.

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